[165]The alpaca derived nanobody, Ty1, prevented binding of SARS-CoV-2 RBD to its host cell receptor ACE2. VLP technology called METAVAX and capsid VLP technology called SplitCorefor the development of COVID-19 vaccines [134]. VBI Vaccines Inc. is also making COVID-19 vaccine named VBI-2902a using enveloped VLPs as platform, results of which recently have been published by Fluckiger and collaborators [135]. The researcher showed preliminary effectiveness of the vaccine against SARS-CoV-2 in Syrian golden hamsters by suppressing medical disease and lung swelling [135]. Lipid nanostructures (LNPs) are another nanotechnology-based platform that is being utilized to develop vaccines against SARS-Co-2. Most of the mRNA-based COVID-19 vaccines are using lipid nanostructures to encapsulate mRNA for delivery into cells. Lipid nanostructures guard mRNA against enzymatic degradation, help mRNA in escaping from endosomes and allow release of the enclosed mRNA into the cytosol, and improve the cellular uptake and thus manifestation of mRNA by many-fold compared to naked mRNA inside the sponsor cells RPC1063 (Ozanimod) [137]C[139]. Among the seven authorized RPC1063 (Ozanimod) vaccine for COVID-19 from the World Health Corporation [117], two are mRNA centered and use lipid nanostructures like a nanocarrier for the delivery: Comirnaty (BNT162b2) by Pfizer, BioNTech and Fosun Pharma; and Moderna COVID-19 Vaccine (mRNA-1273) by Moderna, Biomedical Advanced Study and Development Expert (BARDA), and National Institute of Allergic and Infectious Diseases (NIAID). Along with these two, many other mRNA-based vaccines becoming developed against SARS-CoV-2 are using LNPs: ARCoV, CVnCoV, DS-5670a, MRT5500, PTX-COVID19-B, and ChulaCov19 (Table 4). Table 4. mRNA-based vaccines using Lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) for the delivery of cargo. thead valign=”top” VaccineDeveloperTrial phase /thead ARCoVWalvax Biotechnology Co., Ltd.; Abogen Biosciences Co. Ltd.; Yuxi Walvax Biotechnology Co., Ltd.Phase 3CVnCoVCureVac; GSKPhase 2b/3DS-5670aDaiichi Sankyo Co., Ltd.Phase 1/2MRT5500Sanofi, Translate BioPhase 1/2LUNAR-COV19 (ARCT-021)Arcturus/Duke-NUS/CatalentPhase 1/2LNP-nCoVsaRNAImperial CollegePhase 1/2(Not named yet)Shanghai Municipal Technology and Technology Percentage; Stemirna TherapeuticsPhase 1(Not named yet)Gritstone Oncology, Inc.; National Institute of Allergic and Infectious diseases (NIAID)Phase 1PTX-COVID19-BProvidence Therapeutics; Canadian governmentPhase RPC1063 (Ozanimod) 1ChulaCov19Chulalongkorn UniversityPhase 1D614G variant LNP Encapsulated RNA (Bancovid, Banagavax)Globe Biotech LtdPre-clinicalLNP-encapsulated mRNA encoding SMax-Planck-Institute of Colloids and InterfacesPre-clinicalComirnaty (BNT162b2)Pfizer, BioNTech; Fosun PharmaAuthorized or approvedModerna COVID-19 Vaccine (mRNA-1273)Moderna, Biomedical Advanced Study and Development Expert (BARDA), National Institute of Allergic and Infectious diseases (NIAID)Authorized or authorized Open in a separate window Resource: World Health Corporation [116]. Pfizer, in collaboration with BioNTech, has developed the dual-dose vaccine Comirnaty?BNT162b2 against SARS-CoV-2 [140]. In Comirnaty?, nucleoside-modified mRNAthat encodes receptor binding website (RBD) of the SARS-CoV-2 spike proteinhas been encapsulated inside lipid nanostructures. In phase I/II trials in the USA and in Germany, the vaccine was found to induce powerful immunogenic reactions [140]. The UK was the 1st and Canada was second country to approve emergency use of Comirnaty against SARS-CoV-2. To see the effectiveness of the vaccine among different human population groups such as pregnant women over the age of 18, children under 12 years old, and adolescents between the age 12 and 15, the medical trials have been started in different countries [140]. With an effectiveness of 95%, Comirnaty? has been authorized in 85 countries as of 16 May 2021 [141]. Similarly, Moderna has developed mRNA-1273 vaccine based on lipid nanostructures against SARS-CoV-2. The mRNA-1272 vaccine is also two-dosed like as that of Comirnaty? of Pfizer. The vaccine exploits lipid nanostructures to encapsulate nucleoside-modified mRNA that encodes SARS-CoV-2 spike glycoprotein stabilized in its prefusion conformation [142]. In the initial studies done in mice [142] and primates [143], the vaccine has been found to protect against SARS-CoV-2 illness. In The Coronavirus Effectiveness (COVE) phase 3 randomized, observer-blinded, placebo-controlled, multicenter trial among 30,420 volunteers in the USA, the mRNA-1273 was found to be safe and efficacious for avoiding SARS-CoV-2 illness [144]. The Moderna RPC1063 (Ozanimod) mRNA-1273 vaccine has an effectiveness of 94.1% and has been RPC1063 (Ozanimod) approved for use in 46 countries as of 16 May 2021 [141]. The additional example of COVID-19 vaccine that is using nanostructures platform is NVX-CoV2373 developed by Novavax. It is a recombinant nanostructure vaccine that displays trimeric full-length SARS-CoV-2 spike glycoproteins [145]. Novavax is definitely using its personal saponin-based Matrix-MTM adjuvant technology in the medical trial for the NVX-CoV2373 vaccine [145]. FOXO1A In the phase 3 randomized, observer-blinded, placebo-controlled, multicenter trial in the UK, the two-dosed routine of NVX-CoV2373 offered an effectiveness of 89.7% against SARS-CoV-2 illness and also found to be highly effective against the B.1.1.7 variant [146]. Inside a recently published study content articles, the combination.